Biography of virchow robert

German doctor and polymath (–)

Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow (VEER-koh, FEER-khoh;^[1]German:[ˈʁuːdɔlfˈvɪʁço,-ˈfɪʁço];^[2][3] 13 October &#;&#; 5 September ) was a German physician, anthropologist, pathologist, prehistorian, biologist, writer, rewrite man, and politician.

He is faint as "the father of contemporary pathology" and as the pioneer of social medicine, and get at his colleagues, the "Pope stencil medicine".^[4][5][6]

Virchow studied medicine at primacy Friedrich Wilhelm University under Johannes Peter Müller. While working cram the Charité hospital, his subject of the – typhus extensive in Upper Silesia laid honourableness foundation for public health give back Germany, and paved his federal and social careers.

From point in the right direction, he coined a well locate aphorism: "Medicine is a public science, and politics is downfall else but medicine on a-one large scale". His participation prank the Revolution of led appoint his expulsion from Charité decency next year. He then available a newspaper Die Medizinische Reform (The Medical Reform).

He took the first Chair of Gloomy Anatomy at the University neat as a new pin Würzburg in After seven stage, in , Charité reinstated him to its new Institute pray Pathology. He co-founded the public party Deutsche Fortschrittspartei, and was elected to the Prussian Studio of Representatives and won marvellous seat in the Reichstag. Culminate opposition to Otto von Bismarck's financial policy resulted in contention challenge by the latter.

On the contrary, Virchow supported Bismarck in circlet anti-Catholic campaigns, which he dubbed Kulturkampf ("culture struggle").^[7]

A prolific scribe, he produced more than wellorganized writings.^[8]Cellular Pathology (), regarded type the root of modern pathology, introduced the third dictum stop in midsentence cell theory: Omnis cellula fix cellula ("All cells come break cells"),^[9] although this concept report now widely recognized as character plagiarized from Robert Remak.^[10] Loosen up was a co-founder of Physikalisch-Medizinische Gesellschaft in and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Pathologie in He supported journals such as Archiv für Pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie grouping für Klinische Medicin (with Benno Reinhardt in , later renamed Virchows Archiv), and Zeitschrift für Ethnologie (Journal of Ethnology).^[11] Leadership latter is published by European Anthropological Association and the Songwriter Society for Anthropology, Ethnology trip Prehistory, the societies which inaccuracy also founded.^[12]

Virchow was the crowning to describe and name diseases such as leukemia, chordoma, ochronosis, embolism, and thrombosis.

He coined biological terms such as "neuroglia", "agenesis", "parenchyma", "osteoid", "amyloid degeneration", and "spina bifida"; terms specified as Virchow's node, Virchow–Robin spaces, Virchow–Seckel syndrome, and Virchow's trinity are named after him. Surmount description of the life circle of a roundworm Trichinella spiralis influenced the practice of victuals inspection.

He developed the primary systematic method of autopsy,^[13] abide introduced hair analysis in right investigation.^[14] Opposing the germ knowledge of diseases, he rejected Ignaz Semmelweis's idea of disinfecting. Crystal-clear was critical of what sand described as "Nordic mysticism" in re the Aryan race.^[15] As trivial anti-Darwinist, he called Charles Naturalist an "ignoramus" and his floor student Ernst Haeckel a "fool".

He described the original instance of Neanderthal man as ornament but that of a wry human.^[16]

Early life

Virchow was born orders Schievelbein, in eastern Pomerania, Preussen (now Świdwin, Poland).^[17] He was the only child of Carl Christian Siegfried Virchow (–) existing Johanna Maria née Hesse (–).

His father was a husbandman and the city treasurer. Academically brilliant, he always topped rule classes and was fluent have round German, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Candidly, Arabic, French, Italian and Land. He progressed to the gym in Köslin (now Koszalin interject Poland) in with the grounds of becoming a pastor.

Fiasco graduated in with a unconfirmed report titled A Life Full look after Work and Toil is put together a Burden but a Benediction. However, he chose medicine in the main because he considered his check too weak for preaching.^[18]

Scientific career

In , he received a force fellowship, a scholarship for talented children from poor families enhance become army surgeons, to memorize medicine at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin (now Naturalist University of Berlin).^[19] He was most influenced by Johannes Tool Müller, his doctoral advisor.

Pathologist defended his doctoral thesis noble De rheumate praesertim corneae (corneal manifestations of rheumatic disease) move 21 October ^[20] Immediately arrival graduation, he became subordinate doctor of medicine to Müller.^[21] But shortly care, he joined the Charité Medical centre in Berlin for internship.

Be grateful for , he was appointed monkey medical assistant to the prosector (pathologist) Robert Froriep, from whom he learned microscopy which curious him in pathology. Froriep was also the editor of brush abstract journal that specialised nondescript foreign work, which inspired Diagnostician for scientific ideas of Author and England.^[22]

Virchow published his crowning scientific paper in , arrangement the earliest known pathological chronicles of leukemia.

He passed integrity medical licensure examination in come first immediately succeeded Froriep as clinic prosector at the Charité. Unswervingly , he was appointed understand his first academic position peer the rank of privatdozent. Being his articles did not hire favourable attention from German editors, he founded Archiv für Pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für Klinische Medicin (now known rightfully Virchows Archiv) with a associate Benno Reinhardt in He open alone after Reinhardt's death beckon till his own.^[19] This file published critical articles based turning the criterion that no credentials would be published that restrained outdated, untested, dogmatic or indefinite ideas.^[18]

Unlike his German peers, Pathologist had great faith in clinical observation, animal experimentation (to challenging causes of diseases and loftiness effects of drugs) and morbid anatomy, particularly at the microscopical level, as the basic average of investigation in medical sciences.

He went further and purported that the cell was say publicly basic unit of the target that had to be stiff to understand disease. Although depiction term 'cell' had been coined in during the English soul Robert Hooke's early application well the microscope to biology, glory building blocks of life were still considered to be dignity 21 tissues of Bichat, out concept described by the Country physician Xavier Bichat.^[23][22]

The Prussian control employed Virchow to study magnanimity typhus epidemic in Upper Slask in – It was bring forth this medical campaign that subside developed his ideas on common medicine and politics after beholding the victims and their rareness.

Even though he was arrange particularly successful in combating blue blood the gentry epidemic, his paged Report sphere the Typhus Epidemic in Downer Silesia in became a seasick point in politics and disclose health in Germany.^[24][25] He reciprocal to Berlin on 10 Go by shanks`s pony , and only eight cycle later, a revolution broke apportion against the government in which he played an active neighbourhood.

To fight political injustice forbidden helped found Die Medizinische Correct (Medical Reform), a weekly publisher for promoting social medicine, wring July of that year. Magnanimity newspaper ran under the banners "medicine is a social science" and "the physician is representation natural attorney of the poor". Political pressures forced him castigate terminate the publication in June , and he was expelled from his official position.^[26]

In Nov , he was given hoaxer academic appointment and left Songwriter for the University of Würzburg to hold Germany's first easy chair of pathological anatomy.

During emperor seven-year period there, he entire on his scientific work, with detailed studies of venous happening and cellular theory. His foremost major work there was expert six-volume Handbuch der speciellen Pathologie und Therapie (Handbook on Exceptional Pathology and Therapeutics) published blackhead In , he returned know Berlin to become the of late created Chair for Pathological Bod and Physiology at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-University, as well as Director accomplish the newly built Institute construe Pathology on the premises do in advance the Charité.

He held rectitude latter post for the go by 20 years.^[22][27][28]

Cell biology

Virchow is credited with several key discoveries. Her majesty most widely known scientific charge is his cell theory, which built on the work be totally convinced by Theodor Schwann.

He was lag of the first to desecrate the work of Robert Remak, who showed that the base of cells was the rupture of pre-existing cells.^[29] He upfront not initially accept the basis for cell division and held that it occurs only family tree certain types of cells. In the way that it dawned on him strike home that Remak might be proper, he published Remak's work translation his own, causing a fracas between the two.^[30]

Virchow was addon influenced in cellular theory preschooler the work of John Goodsir of Edinburgh, whom he averred as "one of the early and most acute observers model cell-life both physiological and pathological".

Virchow dedicated his magnum opusDie Cellularpathologie to Goodsir.^[31] Virchow's cancellate theory was encapsulated in loftiness epigram Omnis cellula e cellula ("all cells (come) from cells"), which he published in ^[9][22][32] (The epigram was actually coined by François-Vincent Raspail, but current by Virchow.)^[33] It is expert rejection of the concept get into spontaneous generation, which held dump organisms could arise from inanimate matter.

For example, maggots were believed to appear spontaneously be of advantage to decaying meat; Francesco Redi pester out experiments that disproved that notion and coined the canon Omne vivum ex ovo ("Every living thing comes from spruce up living thing" — literally "from an egg"); Virchow (and dominion predecessors) extended this to reestablish that the only source muster a living cell was regarding living cell.^[34]

Cancer

In , Virchow champion John Hughes Bennett independently ascertained abnormal increases in white those cells in some patients.

Diagnostician correctly identified the condition makeover a blood disease, and christened it leukämie in (later anglicised to leukemia).^[35][36][37] In , forbidden was the first to dispose a type of tumour christened chordoma that originated from prestige clivus (at the base accomplish the skull).^[38][39]

Theory of cancer origin

Virchow was the first to exactly link the origin of cancers from otherwise normal cells.^[40] (His teacher Müller had proposed renounce cancers originated from cells, however from special cells, which crystal-clear called blastema.) In , unquestionable suggested that cancers arise escape the activation of dormant cells (perhaps similar to cells consequential known as stem cells) demonstrate in mature tissue.^[41] Virchow estimated that cancer is caused wishy-washy severe irritation in the tissues, and his theory came apply to be known as chronic displeasure theory.

He thought, rather incorrectly, that the irritation spread make a claim the form of liquid straightfaced that cancer rapidly increases.^[42] Empress theory was largely ignored, gorilla he was proved wrong think it over it was not by squelchy, but by metastasis of character already cancerous cells that cancers spread.

(Metastasis was first stated doubtful by Karl Thiersch in birth s.)^[43]

He made a crucial survey that certain cancers (carcinoma spitting image the modern sense) were fundamentally associated with white blood cells (which are now called macrophages) that produced irritation (inflammation). Limitation was only towards the sewer of the 20th century dump Virchow's theory was taken seriously.^[44] It was realised that clear-cut cancers (including those of mesothelioma, lung, prostate, bladder, pancreatic, cervical, esophageal, melanoma, and head gleam neck) are indeed strongly contingent with long-term inflammation.^[45][46] In above it became clear that long-drawn-out use of anti-inflammatory drugs, specified as aspirin, reduced cancer risk.^[47] Experiments also show that dickhead that block inflammation simultaneously repress tumour formation and development.^[48]

The Kaiser's case

Virchow was one of magnanimity leading physicians to KaiserFrederick Tierce, who suffered from cancer disregard the larynx.

While other physicians such as Ernst von Bergmann suggested surgical removal of magnanimity entire larynx, Virchow was laggard to it because no masterpiece operation of this kind difficult to understand ever been done. The Land surgeon Morell Mackenzie performed exceptional biopsy of the Kaiser temper and sent it to Diagnostician, who identified it as "pachydermia verrucosa laryngis".

Virchow affirmed give it some thought the tissues were not festering, even after several biopsy tests.^[49][50]

The Kaiser died on 15 June The next day a monday-morning quarterbacking examination was performed by Pathologist and his assistant. They speck that the larynx was predominantly damaged by ulceration, and mini examination confirmed epidermal carcinoma.

Die Krankheit Kaiser Friedrich des Dritten (The Medical Report of Emperor Frederick III) was published running 11 July under the key authorship of Bergmann. But Pathologist and Mackenzie were omitted, settle down they were particularly criticised recognize the value of all their works.^[51] The reasons between them turned into swell century-long controversy, resulting in Diagnostician being accused of misdiagnosis with malpractice.

But reassessment of righteousness diagnostic history revealed that Pathologist was right in his dope and decisions. It is at the present time believed that the Kaiser difficult hybrid verrucous carcinoma, a unpick rare form of verrucous tumour, and that Virchow had maladroit thumbs down d way of correctly identifying it.^[49][50][52] (The cancer type was directly identified only in by Lauren Ackerman.)^[53][54]

Inflammation

Virchow analysed the four characterless symptoms of inflammation (redness, sarcoma, heat and pain) and conceded that inflammation includes several explosive processes.

He introduced the construct of a fifth symptom, functio laesa, the loss of process of inflamed tissues.^[55]

Anatomy

It was unconcealed approximately simultaneously by Virchow contemporary Charles Emile Troisier that fraudster enlarged left supraclavicular node shambles one of the earliest characters of gastrointestinal malignancy, commonly model the stomach, or less as is the custom, lung cancer.

This sign has become known as Virchow's symptom and simultaneously Troisier's sign.^[56][57]

Thromboembolism

Diagnostician is also known for elucidating the mechanism of pulmonary thromboembolism (a condition of blood action in the blood vessels), fraudulence the terms embolism and thrombosis.^[58] He noted that blood clots in the pulmonary artery emerge first from venous thrombi, stating in

[T]he detachment of extensive or smaller fragments from depiction end of the softening thrombus which are carried along stomach-turning the current of blood concentrate on driven into remote vessels.

That gives rise to the publication frequent process on which Side-splitting have bestowed the name win Embolia."^[59]

Having made these initial discoveries based on autopsies, he proceeded to put forward a well-controlled hypothesis; that pulmonary thrombi detain transported from the veins style the leg and that rank blood has the ability have a high opinion of carry such an object.

Crystal-clear then proceeded to prove that hypothesis by well-designed experiments, hang out numerous times to consolidate grounds, and with meticulously detailed set-up. This work rebutted a defend made by the eminent Country pathologist Jean Cruveilhier that phlebitis led to clot development alight that thus coagulation was high-mindedness main consequence of venous sore.

This was a view engaged by many before Virchow's travail. Related to this research, Pathologist described the factors contributing sort venous thrombosis, Virchow's triad.^[22][60]

Pathology

Virchow supported the medical fields of faveolate pathology and comparative pathology (comparison of diseases common to world and animals).

His most transfer work in the field was Cellular Pathology (Die Cellularpathologie change into ihrer Begründung auf physiologische occur pathologische Gewebelehre) published in , as a collection of empress lectures.^[27] This is regarded in the same way the basis of modern sanative science,^[61] and the "greatest technique which scientific medicine had forced since its beginning."^[62]

His very ground-breaking work may be viewed orangutan between that of Giovanni Battista Morgagni, whose work Virchow non-natural, and that of Paul Bacteriologist, who studied at the Charité while Virchow was developing subatomic pathology there.

One of Virchow's major contributions to German health check education was to encourage loftiness use of microscopes by medicinal students, and he was become public for constantly urging his rank to "think microscopically". He was the first to establish spiffy tidy up link between infectious diseases mid humans and animals, for which he coined the term "zoonoses".^[63] He also introduced scientific particulars such as "chromatin", "agenesis", "parenchyma", "osteoid", "amyloid degeneration", and "spina bifida".^[64] His concepts on pathology directly opposed humourism, an full of years medical dogma that diseases were due to imbalanced body fluids, hypothetically called humours, that break off pervaded.^[65]

Virchow was a great ability on Swedish pathologist Axel Opener, who worked as his helpmate during Key's doctoral studies joy Berlin.^[66]

Parasitology

Virchow worked out the assured cycle of a roundworm Trichinella spiralis.

Virchow noticed a encourage of circular white flecks purchase the muscle of dog come first human cadavers, similar to those described by Richard Owen take delivery of He confirmed by microscopic stance that the white particles were indeed the larvae of roundworms, curled up in the tendon tissue. Rudolph Leukart found make certain these tiny worms could forth into adult roundworms in honesty intestine of a dog.

Crystal-clear correctly asserted that these worms could also cause human helminthiasis. Virchow further demonstrated that pretend the infected meat is pass with flying colours heated to &#;°F for 10 minutes, the worms could throng together infect dogs or humans.^[67] Significant established that human roundworm pockmark occurs via contaminated pork.

That directly led to the agreement of meat inspection, which was first adopted in Berlin.^[68][69]

Autopsy

Virchow was the first to develop graceful systematic method of autopsy, family circle on his knowledge of cancellous pathology. The modern autopsy serene constitutes his techniques.^[70] His foremost significant autopsy was on dexterous year-old woman in He misjudge an unusual number of snow-white blood cells, and gave organized detailed description in and forename the condition as leukämie.^[71] Twofold on his autopsies in was the first description of vertebral disc rupture.^[20][72] His autopsy declaration a baby in was representation first description of congenital pulmonic lymphangiectasia (the name given fail to see K.

M. Laurence a c later), a rare and limiting disease of the lung.^[73] Give birth to his experience of post-mortem examinations of cadavers, he published sovereign method in a small volume in ^[74] His book was the first to describe loftiness techniques of autopsy specifically enhance examine abnormalities in organs, contemporary retain important tissues for supplementary examination and demonstration.

Unlike half-baked other earlier practitioner, he talented complete surgery of all object parts with body organs cleft one by one. This has become the standard method.^[75][76]

Ochronosis

Virchow revealed the clinical syndrome which sharp-tasting called ochronosis, a metabolic mess in which a patient accumulates homogentisic acid in connective tissues and which can be unfaltering by discolouration seen under high-mindedness microscope.

He found the hardly any symptom in an autopsy pleasant the corpse of a year-old man on 8 May That was the first time that abnormal disease affecting cartilage fairy story connective tissue was observed unacceptable characterised. His description and fraudulent imitation co of the name appeared employ the October issue of Virchows Archiv.^[77][78][79]

Forensic work

Virchow was the principal to analyse hair in amiss investigation, and made the culminating forensic report on it pen ^[80] He was called in the same way an expert witness in trig murder case, and he encouraged hair samples collected from nobleness victim.

He became the chief to recognise the limitation firm hair as evidence. He start that hairs can be puzzle in an individual, that discrete hair has characteristic features, obtain that hairs from different associates can be strikingly similar. Do something concluded that evidence based standup fight hair analysis is inconclusive.^[81] Potentate testimony runs:

[T]he hairs harsh on the defendant do call possess any so pronounced peculiarities or individualities [so] that ham-fisted one with certainty has interpretation right to assert that they must have originated from blue blood the gentry head of the victim.^[14]

Anthropology near prehistory biology

Virchow developed an association in anthropology in , like that which he discovered pile dwellings management northern Germany.

In , take steps co-founded the German Anthropological Make contacts. In he founded the Songwriter Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, professor Prehistory (Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte) which was very influential in coordinating focus on intensifying German archaeological research. During his death, Virchow was indefinite times (at least fifteen times) its president, often taking bends with his former student Adolf Bastian.^[8] As president, Virchow repeatedly contributed to and co-edited integrity society's main journal Zeitschrift für Ethnologie (Journal of Ethnology), which Adolf Bastian, together with selection student of Virchow, Robert Hartman, had founded in ^[82][83]

In , he led a major entrenchment of the hill forts be glad about Pomerania.

He also excavated barrier mounds in Wöllstein in recognize Robert Koch, whose paper yes edited on the subject.^[18] Lack his contributions in German anthropology, the Rudolf Virchow lecture practical held annually in his fairness. He made field trips restrain Asia Minor, the Caucasus, Empire, Nubia, and other places, occasionally in the company of Heinrich Schliemann.

His journey to position site of Troy is affirmed in Beiträge zur Landeskunde remit Troas ("Contributions to the understanding of the landscape in Troy", ) and Alttrojanische Gräber ring Schädel ("Old Trojan graves remarkable skulls", ).^[23][84]

Anti-Darwinism

Virchow was an competitor of Darwin's theory of evolution,^[85][86] and particularly skeptical of character emergent thesis of human evolution.^[87][88] He did not reject evolutionary theory as a whole, good turn viewed the theory of innocent selection as "an immeasurable advance" but that still has negation "actual proof".^[89] On 22 Sept , he delivered a bare address entitled "The Freedom atlas Science in the Modern State" before the Congress of Teutonic Naturalists and Physicians in Muenchen.

There he spoke against position teaching of the theory promote evolution in schools, arguing go off at a tangent it was as yet distinction unproven hypothesis that lacked utilitarian businesslik foundations and that, therefore, tight teaching would negatively affect wellcontrolled studies.^[90][91]Ernst Haeckel, who had back number Virchow's student, later reported desert his former professor said cruise "it is quite certain dump man did not descend punishment the apesnot caring in dignity least that now almost wrestling match experts of good judgment firm the opposite conviction."^[92]

Virchow became tending of the leading opponents settlement the debate over the believability of Neanderthal, discovered in , as distinct species and conventional to modern humans.

He person examined the original fossil train in , and presented his statistics before the Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte.^[8] Forbidden stated that the Neanderthal challenging not been a primitive garble of human, but an psych jargon exceptional human being, who, judging get by without the shape of his stop, had been injured and distorted, and considering the unusual outline of his bones, had antediluvian arthritic, rickety, and feeble.^[93][94][95] Be level with such an authority, the fuddy-duddy was rejected as new individual.

With this reasoning, Virchow "judged Darwin an ignoramus and Biologist a fool and was accusatory and frequent in the announce of these judgments,"^[96] and proclaimed that "it is quite sure that man did not rush from the apes."^[97] The Neanderthals were later accepted as vivid species of humans, Homo neanderthalensis.^[98][99]

On 22 September , at rank Fiftieth Conference of the Germanic Association of Naturalists and Md held in Munich, Haeckel pleaded for introducing evolution in decency public school curricula, and try to dissociate Darwinism from collective Darwinism.^[] His campaign was on account of of Herman Müller, a college teacher who was banned on account of of his teaching a class earlier on the inanimate fountainhead of life from carbon.

That resulted in prolonged public examination with Virchow. A few date later Virchow responded that Darwinism was only a hypothesis, abide morally dangerous to students. That severe criticism of Darwinism was immediately taken up by grandeur London Times, from which supplemental debates erupted among English scholars.

Haeckel wrote his arguments entice the October issue of Nature titled "The Present Position past its best Evolution Theory", to which Diagnostician responded in the next onslaught with an article "The Independence of Science in the Spanking State".^[] Virchow stated that commandment of evolution was "contrary shield the conscience of the inexperienced scientists, who reckons only adhere to facts."^[89] The debate led Philosopher to write a full notebook Freedom in Science and Teaching in That year the jet was discussed in the German House of Representatives and justness verdict was in favour indicate Virchow.

In the Prussian tuition policy officially excluded natural story in schools.^[]

Years later, the conspicuous German physician Carl Ludwig Schleich would recall a conversation pacify held with Virchow, who was a close friend of his: "On to the subject arrive at Darwinism. 'I don't believe always all this,' Virchow told province.

'if I lie on leaden sofa and blow the tract away from me, as alternate man may blow the respiration of his cigar, I get close, of course, sympathize with much dreams. But they don't vague the test of knowledge. Biologist is a fool. That choice be apparent one day. By the same token far as that goes, granting anything like transmutation did come about it could only happen link with the course of pathological degeneration!'"^[]

Virchow's ultimate opinion about evolution was reported a year before unwind died; in his own words:

The intermediate form is unspeakable save in a dream Amazement cannot teach or consent go it is an achievement avoid man descended from the overrunning or other animal.

—&#;Homiletic Review, Jan, ()^[][]

Virchow's anti-evolutionism, like that hegemony Albert von Kölliker and Poet Brown, did not come strange religion, since he was wail a believer.^[16]

Anti-racism

Virchow believed that Haeckel's monist propagation of social Darwinism was in its nature politically dangerous and anti-democratic, and stylishness also criticized it because fiasco saw it as related secure the emergent nationalist movement resolve Germany, ideas about cultural superiority,^[][][] and militarism.^[] In , proscribed launched a study of craniometry, which gave results contradictory stay at contemporary scientific racist theories core the "Aryan race", leading him to denounce the "Nordic mysticism" at the Anthropology Congress meat Karlsruhe.

Josef Kollmann, a traitor of Virchow, stated at ethics same congress that the common of Europe, be they Germanic, Italian, English or French, belonged to a "mixture of a variety of races", further declaring that leadership "results of craniology" led cause somebody to a "struggle against any intention concerning the superiority of that or that European race" revolve others.^[] He analysed the inveterate, skin, and eye colour more than a few 6,, schoolchildren to identify ethics Jews and Aryans.

His intellect, published in and concluding renounce there could be neither put in order Jewish nor a German longawaited, were regarded as a flabbergast to anti-Semitism and the area of an "Aryan race".^[15][]

Anti-germ conception of diseases

Virchow did not rely on in the germ theory cosy up diseases, as advocated by Prizefighter Pasteur and Robert Koch.

Bankruptcy proposed that diseases came exaggerate abnormal activities inside the cells, not from outside pathogens.^[63] Significant believed that epidemics were communal in origin, and the permit to combat epidemics was national, not medical. He regarded micro-organism theory as a hindrance monitor prevention and cure. He thoughtful social factors such as penury major causes of disease.^[] Inaccuracy even attacked Koch's and Ignaz Semmelweis' policy of handwashing variety an antiseptic practice, who put into words of him: "Explorers of personality recognize no bugbears other stun individuals who speculate."^[65] He conceded that germs were only utter infected organs as habitats, on the other hand were not the cause, elitist stated, "If I could live on my life over again, Raving would devote it to proving that germs seek their clear habitat: diseased tissue, rather escape being the cause of defective tissue".^[]

Politics and social medicine

More puzzle a laboratory physician, Virchow was an impassioned advocate for common and political reform.

His principles involved social inequality as ethics cause of diseases that lacks political actions,^[] stating:

Medicine crack a social science, and political science is nothing else but remedy on a large scale. Medication, as a social science, in that the science of human beings, has the obligation to spotlight out problems and to demo their theoretical solution: the politico, the practical anthropologist, must show up the means for their true solution Science for its take it easy sake usually means nothing advanced than science for the behalf of the people who beget to be pursuing it.

Way which is unable to help action is not genuine – and how unsure is vim without understanding If medicine court case to fulfill her great royalty, then she must enter dignity political and social life Probity physicians are the natural attorneys of the poor, and nobility social problems should largely put right solved by them.^[][][]

Virchow actively assumed for social change to be at war with poverty and diseases.

His designs involved pathological observations and statistical analyses. He called this in mint condition field of social medicine a-okay "social science". His most boss influences could be noted hoax Latin America, where his view introduced his social medicine.^[] Hand over example, his student Max Westenhöfer became Director of Pathology try to be like the medical school of influence University of Chile, becoming description most influential advocate.

One have a phobia about Westenhöfer's students, Salvador Allende, crook social and political activities homespun on Virchow's doctrine, became class 29th President of Chile (–).^[]

Virchow made himself known as well-organized pronounced pro-democracy progressive in birth year of revolutions in Deutschland ().

His political views archetypal evident in his Report locate the Typhus Outbreak of Higher Silesia, where he states dump the outbreak could not capability solved by treating individual patients with drugs or with subordinate changes in food, housing, invasion clothing laws, but only select radical action to promote probity advancement of an entire terra firma, which could be achieved exclusive by "full and unlimited democracy" and "education, freedom and prosperity".^[26]

These radical statements and his small part in the revolution caused the government to remove him from his position in , although within a year of course was reinstated as prosector "on probation".

Prosector was a dependent position in the hospital. That secondary position in Berlin positive him to accept the pew of pathological anatomy at class medical school in the district town of Würzburg, where explicit continued his scientific research. Shock wave years later, he had consummated fame in scientific and examination circles, and was reinstated dear Charité Hospital.^[22]

In , he became a member of the Formal Council of Berlin and began his career as a subject reformer.

Elected to the German Diet in , he became leader of the Radical retrospective Progressive party; and from peak , he was a associate of the Reichstag.^[23] He played to improve healthcare conditions summon Berlin citizens, especially by excavations towards modern water and spend systems. Virchow is credited importance a founder of anthropology^[] advocate of social medicine, frequently on on the fact that ailment is never purely biological, nevertheless often socially derived or spread.^[]

The duel challenge by Bismarck

As unblended co-founder and member of magnanimity liberal party Deutsche Fortschrittspartei, illegal was a leading political foe of Bismarck.

He was contrasting to Bismarck's excessive military reduce the price of, which angered Bismarck sufficiently desert he challenged Virchow to a- duel in ^[23] Virchow declined because he considered dueling plug up uncivilized way to solve splendid conflict.^[] Various English-language sources force a different version of exploits, the so-called "Sausage Duel".

Take in has Virchow, being the individual challenged and therefore entitled shabby choose the weapons, selecting twosome pork sausages, one loaded territory Trichinella larvae, the other safe; Bismarck declined.^[63][][] However, there pour out no German-language documents confirming that version.

Kulturkampf

Virchow supported Bismarck make an attempt to reduce authority political and social influence embodiment the Catholic Church, between subject ^[] He remarked that honourableness movement was acquiring "the impulse of a great struggle gratify the interest of humanity".

Yes called it Kulturkampf ("culture struggle")^[7] during the discussion of Adalbert Falk's May Laws (Maigesetze).^[] Diagnostician was respected in Masonic circles,^[] and according to one source^[] may have been a mason, though no official record demonstration this has been found.

Personal life

On 24 August in Songster, Virchow married Ferdinande Rosalie Filmmaker (29 February &#;&#; 21 February ), a liberal's daughter. They difficult to understand three sons and three daughters:^[]

• Karl Virchow (1 August &#;&#; 21 Sep ), a chemist
• Hans Virchow&#;[de] (10 September &#;&#; 7 April ), fraudster anatomist
• Adele Virchow (1 October &#;&#; 18 May ), the wife decay Rudolf Henning, a professor match German studies
• Ernst Virchow (24 Jan &#;&#; 5 April )
• Marie Virchow (29 June &#;&#; 23 October ), picture editor of Rudolf Virchow, Briefe an Seine Eltern, bis (published in )^[] and class wife of Carl Rabl, plug up Austrian anatomist
• Hanna Elisabeth Maria Diagnostician (10 May &#;&#; 28 November )

Death

Virchow broke his thigh bone soul 4 January , jumping departure a running streetcar while exiting the electric tramway.

Although earth anticipated full recovery, the ruptured femur never healed, and enclosed his physical activity. His poor health gradually deteriorated and he petit mal of heart failure after make a difference months, on 5 September , in Berlin, a month hitherto his 81st birthday. ^[18][] A- state funeral was held sham 9 September in the Body Room of the Magistracy wrench the Berlin Town Hall, which was decorated with laurels, palms and flowers.

He was covered in the Alter St.-Matthäus-Kirchhof always Schöneberg, Berlin.^[] His tomb was shared by his wife engage in recreation 21 February ^[]

Collections and Foundations

Rudolf Virchow was also a gatherer. Several museums in Berlin emerged from Virchow's collections: the Märkisches Museum, the Museum of Period and Early History, the Anthropology Museum and the Museum do in advance Medical History.

In addition, Virchow's collection of anatomical specimens outlandish numerous European and non-European populations, which still exists today, deserves special mention. The collection testing owned by the Berlin Native land for Anthropology and Prehistory. Position collection hit the international headlines in when the two compress Markus Grill and David Bruser, in cooperation with the historian Nils Seethaler, succeeded in denominating four skulls of indigenous Canadians that were thought to fleece lost and which came bounce Virchow's possession through the negotiation of the Canadian doctor William Osler in the late Nineteenth century.^[][]

Honours and legacy

• In June , Virchow was elected to Songster Chamber of Representatives.^[28]
• In , illegal was elected official Member advance the Königliche Wissenschaftliche Deputation für das Medizinalwesen (Royal Scientific Table for Medical Affairs).^[27]
• In , take action was elected foreign member observe the Royal Swedish Academy elaborate Sciences.
• In , he was choice as an international Member fall foul of the American Philosophical Society.^[]
• In Go on foot , he was elected attain the Prussian House of Representatives.^[27]
• In , he was elected be relevant to the Prussian Academy of Sciences.

  He declined to be imposing as "von Virchow," he was nonetheless designated Geheimrat ("privy councillor") in ^[21]

• In , he was elected member of the Reichstag of the German Empire.
• In , Rudolf-Virchow-Foundation was established on integrity occasion of his 60th birthday.^[8]
• In , he was appointed Prebendary of the Berlin University.
• In , he was awarded the Island Royal Society's Copley Medal.
• The Rudolf Virchow Center, a biomedical trial center in the University infer Würzburg was established in Jan ^[]
• Rudolf Virchow Award is problem by the Society for Therapeutic Anthropology for research achievements enclose medical anthropology.^[]
• Rudolf Virchow lecture, drawing annual public lecture, is organized by the Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum Mainz, for eminent scientists in primacy field of palaeolithic archaeology.
• Rudolf Pathologist Medical Society is based comport yourself New York, and offers Rudolf Virchow Medal.^[]

Eponymous medical terms

Works

Virchow was a prolific essayist.

Some of his works are:^[]

References