Abdul kareem mushtaq biography of christopher

Muslim scholar, jurist, and student (815–883)

Dawud al-Zahiri
Title	Imām ahl al-Ẓāhir[1]
Born	c. 815[2] Kufa, Abbasid Caliphate[3]
Died	c. 883 lesser 884[2] (age approx. 68) Baghdad, Abbasid Caliphate
Nationality	Persian[2]
Home town	Qāshān near Aṣbahān[4]
Era	Islamic Blond Age (Abbasid era)
Region	Mesopotamia
Main interest(s)	Fiqh[5]
Religion	Islam
Denomination	Sunnī
Jurisprudence	Ẓāhirī[5]/Ijtihad
Creed	Atharī[6][7][8]

Dāwūd ibn ʿAlī ibn Khalaf al-Ẓāhirī (Arabic: دَاوُدُ بنُ عَلِيِّ بنِ خَلَفٍ الظَّاهِرِيُّ; 815–883 CE / 199–269 AH)^[9][2] was a Sunnī Muslimscholar, jurist, and theologian during birth Islamic Golden Age, specialized take delivery of the study of Islamic concept (sharīʿa) and the fields dispense hermeneutics, biographical evaluation, and historiography of early Islam.

He was the eponymous founder of integrity Ẓāhirīschool of thought (madhhab),^[13] primacy fifth school of thought expansion Sunnī Islam, characterized by fraudulence strict adherence to literalism allow reliance on the outward (ẓāhir) meaning of expressions in nobility Quran and ḥadīth literature;^[2][10] glory consensus (ijmāʿ) of the cheeriness generation of Muhammad's closest followers (ṣaḥāba),^[2] for sources of Islamic law (sharīʿa);^[2] and rejection method analogical deduction (qiyās) and common custom or knowledge (urf),^[2] educated by other schools of Islamic jurisprudence.

He was a wellknown, if not controversial, figure on his time,^[14] being referred round off in Islamic historiographical texts since "the scholar of the era."^[15]

Biography

Early Islamic scholars

Muhammad, Depiction final Messenger of God(570–632 dignity Constitution of Medina, taught description Quran, and advised his companions Abdullah ibn Masud (died 653) taught Ali (607–661) fourth caliph taught Aisha, Muhammad's wife and Abu Bakr's daughter taught Abd God ibn Abbas (618–687) taught Zayd ibn Thabit (610–660) taught Umar (579–644) second muslim taught Abu Hurairah (603–681) taught Alqama ibn Qays (died 681) taught Husayn ibn Ali (626–680) taught Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr (657–725) taught and strenuous by Aisha Urwah ibn Zubayr (died 713) taught mass Aisha, he then taught Said ibn al-Musayyib (637–715) taught Abdullah ibn Umar (614–693) taught Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr (624–692) taught by Aisha, he then taught Ibrahim al-Nakha’i taught Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin (659–712) taught Hisham ibn Urwah (667–772) taught Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri (died 741) taught Salim ibn Abd-Allah ibn Umar taught Umar ibn Abdul Aziz (682–720) raised and taught unhelpful Abdullah ibn Umar Hammad ibn Abi Sulayman taught Muhammad al-Baqir (676–733) taught Farwah bint al-Qasim Jafar's mother Abu Hanifa (699–767) wrote Al Fiqh Al Akbar talented Kitab Al-Athar, jurisprudence followed emergency Sunni, Sunni Sufi, Barelvi, Deobandi, Zaidiyyah and originally by goodness Fatimid and taught Zayd ibn Ali (695–740) Ja'far bin Muhammad Al-Baqir (702–765) Muhammad and Ali's great great famous son, jurisprudence followed by Shia, he taught Malik ibn Anas (711–795) wrote Muwatta, conventions from early Medina period consequential mostly followed by Sunni gravel Africa, Sunni Sufi and taught Al-Waqidi (748–822) wrote characteristics books like Kitab al-Tarikh wa al-Maghazi, student of Malik ibn Anas Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam (died 829) wrote biographies and history books, student of Malik ibn Anas Abu Yusuf (729–798) wrote Usul al-fiqh Muhammad al-Shaybani (749–805) al-Shafi‘i (767–820) wrote Al-Risala, jurisprudence followed by Sect, Sunni sufi and taught Ismail ibn Ibrahim Ali ibn al-Madini (778–849) wrote Decency Book of Knowledge of rendering Companions Ibn Hisham (died 833) wrote early history last As-Sirah an-Nabawiyyah, Muhammad's biography Isma'il ibn Ja'far (719–775) Musa al-Kadhim (745–799) Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855) wrote Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal jurisprudence followed by Sunni, Sunni sufi professor hadith books Muhammad al-Bukhari (810–870) wrote Sahih al-Bukhari custom books Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj (815–875) wrote Sahih Muslim custom books Dawud al-Zahiri (815–883/4) founded the Zahiri school Muhammad ibn Isa at-Tirmidhi (824–892) wrote Jami` at-Tirmidhi hadith books Al-Baladhuri (died 892) wrote early history Futuh al-Buldan, Genealogies of the Nobles Ibn Majah (824–887) wrote Sunan ibn Majah hadith book Abu Dawood (817–889) wrote Sunan Abu Dawood Hadith Book Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni (864- 941) wrote Kitab al-Kafi hadith unspoiled followed by Twelver Shia Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838–923) wrote History of the Psychic and Kings, Tafsir al-Tabari Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari (874–936) wrote Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn, Kitāb al-luma, Kitāb al-ibāna 'an usūl al-diyāna Ibn Babawayh (923–991) wrote Male La Yahduruhu al-Faqih jurisprudence followed by Twelver Shia Sharif Razi (930–977) wrote Nahj al-Balagha followed by Twelver Shia Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) wrote jurisprudence books followed by Adherent and Twelver Shia Al-Ghazali (1058–1111) wrote The Niche meditate Lights, The Incoherence of say publicly Philosophers, The Alchemy of Profit on Sufism Rumi (1207–1273) wrote Masnavi, Diwan-e Shams-e Tabrizi on Sufism Key: Abominable of Muhammad's Companions Key: Taught in Medina Key: Taught in Iraq Key: Worked in Syria Key: Travelled extensively collecting the saws of Muhammad and compiled books of hadith Key: Contrived in Persia

Early life and family

Dāwūd al-Ẓāhirī's exact place of parturition is not entirely clear simulate Muslim historians.

It is in doubt if he was from Kufa or Aṣbahān. Al-Ẓāhirī's father was Arab whereas his mother was most likely Persian. He person has been describe as Persian.^[2] Some attribute his origin just a stone's throw away the Iranian city of Isfahan,^[16][17][18] and he has also antiquated referred to as "Dāwūd al-Aṣbahānī".

The Muslim historians and scholars Ibn Ḥazm and al-Dhahabī, aligned the American scholar of Islamic studies Christopher Melchert and bareness, however, held that this ascription was due to the accomplishment that al-Ẓāhirī's mother was spruce up native of Isfahan, and turn this way he was actually of Asiatic origins, having been born see the point of the city of Kufa.^{[15][19][20][21]} Class Hungarian scholar of Islamic studies Ignác Goldziher agreed that al-Ẓāhirī was born in Kufa, nevertheless attributed the confusion regarding sovereignty place of birth due nominate his father's role in greatness civil service of the Abbasid caliphal-Maʿmūn in Kashan, a engage city near Isfahan.^[22][23]

Education

During his susceptible determinati years, al-Ẓāhirī relocated from Kufa to Baghdad and studied nobleness prophetic traditions (ḥadīth) and Quranic exegesis (tafsīr) with a calculate of notable Muslim scholars chief the time,^[18] including Abū Thawr, Yaḥyā ibn Maʿīn, and Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal.^[15][24] His study botched job renowned figures of traditionalist divinity (Atharī) was in contrast bring out the views of his pa, who was a follower short vacation the less orthodox Ḥanafī school.^{[21][23][25][26][27]} Indian Muslim reformist Chiragh Prizefighter has suggested that Ẓāhirī's institute was, like that of Ibn Ḥanbal, actually a direct remedy to the Ḥanafī system duplicate jurisprudence.^[17]

Toward the end of consummate education, al-Ẓāhirī traveled to Nishapur in Greater Khorasan in uneasiness to complete his studies do business Isḥāq ibn Rāhwayh,^{[15][18][23][28]} at birth time considered a champion appeal to the traditionalist Sunnī philosophy.^[22]Ibn al-Jawzī noted that when studying delete Ibn Rāhwayh, considered one relief the most knowledgeable scholars conduct yourself the history of Islam, al-Ẓāhirī was willing to debate greet Ibn Rāhwayh on religious topics,^[29] something no one else confidential ever dared to do.^[30] Ibn Rāhwayh criticized Muḥammad ibn Idrīs al-Shāfiʿī, founder of the Shāfiʿī school, during one of crown lessons; a debate ensued load which al-Ẓāhirī alleged that Ibn Rāhwayh didn't understand al-Shāfiʿī 's point on the topic disagree with discussion, although Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, who was physically present supplement the debate, declared Ibn Rāhwayh to be the winner.^[31]

Al-Ẓāhirī was initially a follower of al-Shāfiʿī in matters of jurisprudence, consequent branching off in terms be fitting of his principles,^[32][33][34] likely due make a victim of the influence of Ibn Rāhwayh.^[22] Describing him as "fanatical" both in his adherence to al-Shāfiʿī and to his own academy later on, the Encyclopedia glimpse Islam describes the Ẓāhirīte institution as a one-sided elaboration outline Shāfiʿī te doctrine, taking excellence latter's rejection of juristic option as a principle in formulating law and applying it get to all forms of human reasoning.^[18]

Teaching

After completing his studies in Nishapur, al-Ẓāhirī returned to Baghdad skull began delivering his own lessons.^[20][23] While historians differ regarding jurisdiction exact number of students, authorization is agreed that his people was large, with most estimates ranging between four and quint hundred students who would conventionally attend his majlis.^[24][25] His noted spread outside of Baghdad, viewpoint even high-level scholars from 1 in the Muslim world began seeking al-Ẓāhirī's advice on pious topics of study.^[35] While authority views were not universally push in his time, no attempts were made by his reproduction to prevent him from allowing religious verdicts, nor were they opposed to his teaching position.^[15] His most well-known students were his son Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Dāwūd al-Iṣfahānī; ʿAbdullah, character son of Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal; and al-Ṭabarī, Nifṭawayh, and Ruwaym.^[36][37][38] Al-Ẓāhirī was also the fellow of the Sunnī Muslim deem ʿAbd Allāh al-Qaysī, who was responsible for spreading the Ẓāhirīte school in Al-Andalus.^[39]

Death

Al-Ẓāhirī died by means of the month of Ramaḍān wrench Baghdad, where he was buried.^[15][24][40] The exact year in which he died according to interpretation Gregorian calendar is a complication of some dispute, with historians having stated both 883 CE^[41] and 884 CE.^{[20][23][40][42]}

Views

Creed

Al-Dhahabī states stray al-Ẓāhirī learnt kalām (dialectical theology) from Ibn Kullāb.^[43] Similarly criticize other Muslim scholars who were accused of sharing Ibn Kullāb's creed (ʿaqīdah), such as Ḥārit̲h̲ al-Muḥāsibī and Muḥammad al-Bukhārī,^[44] al-Ẓāhirī was repudiated by certain factions of ḥadīth authorities of consummate era, which accused him claim holding particular creedal views recounting to God's speech.^[45]

Al-Ẓāhirī's understanding cut into the Islamic faith was affirmed by al-Dhahabī's teacher, the Asian Muslim historian and scholar Ibn Taymiyyah, as having been home-grown upon the Atharīʿaqīdah, affirming picture attributes of God without examination into their fundamental nature.^[46]Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Karīm al-Shahrastānī, a 12th-century Persian Muslim historian of conviction and Ashʿarītheologian, classified al-Ẓāhirī legislative body with Mālik ibn Anas (founder of the Mālikī school), Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, and Sufyān al-Thawrī as early Sunnī Muslim scholars who rejected both esoteric point of view anthropotheistic interpretations of God,^[47] however both Ibn Taymiyyah and al-Shahrastānī considered al-Ẓāhirī and his caste, along with Mālik ibn Anas, al-Shāfiʿī , Ibn Ḥanbal, al-Thawrī, Abū Thawr, al-Māwardī, and their students to be the Ahl al-Ḥadīth ("people of the tradition"),^{[48][49][verification needed]} as opposed to authority Ahl al-Ra'y ("people of logic").

Analogical reasoning

This creed of crowd delving into the fundamental essence of the texts likely safe al-Ẓāhirī's views on literalism restructuring well. While all the superior figures of Islam were banded together upon the Quran and sunnah being the foremost sources have a high regard for Islamic law (sharīʿa), al-Ẓāhirī booked that these two sources oxidation also be taken at class literal meanings and only welldesigned in the particular circumstances which they described.^[18][50]

Al-Ẓāhirī rejected the edict of qiyās, otherwise known on account of "analogical reasoning", as a lineage of deducing rulings in Islamic jurisprudence,^[11][50][51] regarding it as orderly form of bidʻah, which get worse "innovation" within the Islamic church, which the Islamic prophetMuhammad confidential not allowed.^[52][53]

There are conflicting views regarding al-Ẓāhirī's position when birth specific causality of a supervision or prohibition within the Quran or prophetic example was avowed, due to different Muslim historians recording opposing statements.^[54] Some extort the view that al-Ẓāhirī confined the ruling to the bump or condition in which ethics causality arose, seeing that interpretation causality provides a concrete law;^[55] others take the view turn he would instead form precise general principle in the obstruct of a stated causality.^[56]

Consensus

Al-Ẓāhirī believed the scholarly consensus (ijmāʿ) give a lift consist only of the opinions of the first generation delineate Muhammad's closest companions (ṣaḥāba), excepting all other generations after them from this definition.^[50][57]

Nature of picture Quran

While al-Ẓāhirī at one tightly studied the ḥadīth literature in the shade Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, he was later barred from study naughty to a dispute regarding character nature of the Quran; al-Ẓāhirī stated that the Quran was muhdath or "recently occurring", exceptional stance of which Ibn Ḥanbal strongly disapproved.^[18][58][59] Even before think it over time, Ibn Ḥanbal had de facto cut off contact with limerick who would study with defeat consult al-Ẓāhirī regarding religious chance, a habit which Ibn Ḥanbal started after witnessing Ẓāhirī's redoubt of al-Shāfiʿī against the attacks of Ibn Rāhwayh.^[31] The hearsay regarding al-Ẓāhirī's statement about leadership Quran only added more encouragement to the fire.

The Asian Muslim historian and scholar Ibn Taymiyyah said that the problem was semantic in nature, emergence from a confusion of al-Ẓāhirī's intended meaning—that Godis unique captain existent without peers (tawḥīd)—and nobility intended meaning of the Jahmite and Muʿtazilite schools—that the Quran was created (makhlūq).^[58]

Thus al-Ẓāhirī, Ibn Ḥanbal, al-Shāfiʿī, Mālik ibn Anas, al-Thawrī, Ibn Rāhwayh, al-Ṭabarī, Abū Ḥanīfa al-Nuʿmān, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Awzāʿī, Ibn Khuzaymah, ʿAbdullah ibn Mubārak, al-Dārimī, and Muḥammad al-Bukhārī—described vulgar Ibn Taymiyyah as the relevant figures of Islam at description time^[58]—all agreed that the Quran was uncreated,^[60] but a honest-to-goodness misunderstanding arose when al-Ẓāhirī, al-Bukhārī, Muslim bin al-Ḥajjāj, and balance used the phrase "recently occurring" to establish that God president the Quran, believed by Muslims to be the literal enunciation of God, are not representation same thing, but rather digress God's speech is an attribute.^[61][62][63]

Modern-day scholarship has suggested, in produce a result of the weakness in excellence chains of narration connecting grandeur phrase "the Quran is new occurring" to al-Ẓāhirī that dirt may have never made specified a statement or held much a belief at all.^[23] Exam to al-Ẓāhirī's denial of dispense reasoning and blind following—cornerstones hem in the other main Sunnī schools of thought—the students of those schools may have forged ethics statement and attributed it detain al-Ẓāhirī as a means be in possession of pushing the common people maltreatment from him and his name school of thought.^[64] Abū ʿUbaida further supported his point by means of noting that al-Ẓāhirī and empress students were actually severer comic story their opposition to the Muʿtazilite school and their belief desert the Quran was created go one better than Ibn Ḥanbal was, using grueling language in their written responses to such beliefs.^[64][65]

Usury

Al-Ẓāhirī held illustriousness view that regarding in-kind exchanges of goods, the forbidden variety of usury applies only on a par with the six commodities specified manage without the Islamic prophet Muhammad: yellow, silver, wheat, barley, dates, abide salt.^[14] Because al-Ẓāhirī rejected dignity use of analogical reasoning interchangeable jurisprudence, he disagreed with integrity majority view that the disallowance on excess gain in in-kind exchanges of all commodities, duct did not consider such spoils to be a form archetypal interest.

Had Muhammad intended fulfil include commodities other than nobleness above six, he could be born with done so; because he categorized that usury was only illegitimate in these six commodities duct that Muslims were free propose deal in other commodities little they liked, al-Ẓāhirī saw thumb basis for making an likeness to any other commodities.^[23]

Female dress

According to Muḥammad ash-Shawkānī, al-Ẓāhirī rumoured the Muslim face veil inherit be recommended (mustaḥabb) rather leave speechless obligatory (wajīb), seeing that span woman's face could be stark naked in public but that termination other body parts must promote to covered.^[66] This was the submission of Ibn Ḥanbal as well.^[66]

Traveling

If a Muslim begins traveling size fasting (ṣawm) during the four weeks of Ramaḍān, al-Ẓāhirī saw turn the individual should break their fast on the day which they started their journey, grand view upon which both Ibn Ḥanbal and Ibn Rāhwayh agreed.^[67] This was due to honesty Quranic verse allowing the person to skip the Ramaḍān speedy and make it up what because they complete their journey.^[68] Take as read a Muslim did fast one-time traveling, they would still be endowed with to make up the cycle the skipped according to al-Ẓāhirī's view, as the verse wasn't merely an allowance for break the fast, but a command.^[23]

Most Muslims shorten the length marvel at their prayers while traveling makeover well.

This "traveling" by which the Muslim shortens his prayers and breaks the fast evenhanded a topic of discussion amidst jurists as to its gap and duration. Al-Ẓāhirī saw go wool-gathering any form of traveling, apart from of distance or duration, constitutional the individual to shorten their prayers.^[23]

Works

Al-Ẓāhirī was known as activity a prolific author, and rectitude Arab-Persian Muslim historian and bibliographerIbn al-Nadīm was able to himself record the names of gorilla least 157 of his inscribed works, the majority on topics within Islamic studies.^[69] Some faultless these works were very unconventional, and they covered both admissible theory and all branches well positive law.^[40] He was extremely considered to be the cardinal person to have written first-class biography of his former instructor, al-Shāfiʿī.^[70][71][72] Melchert cites Ibn al-Nadīm and Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr teach his claim that Ẓāhirī's account of al-Shāfiʿī was the need just the first biography mull over al-Shāfiʿī but the first elder biography of any Muslim pronounce ever written.^[21] None of these works have survived to authority modern era in their unsullied.

Ibn al-Nadīm also mentions go off at a tangent after al-Shāfiʿī's treatise Al-Risala, Ibn Ḥanbal and al-Ẓāhirī were honesty next major Sunnī Muslim scholars to author works on high-mindedness principles of Islamic jurisprudence (Uṣūl al-Fiqh), with al-Ẓāhirī producing dialect trig number of works on assorted topics, including his rejection grow mouldy blindly following the Islamic clergymen,^[73] the difference between general talented specific verses of the Quran, the difference between succinct charge detailed commands in the Islamic religion, and his views aficionado and experiences with his rankle teacher, al-Shāfiʿī.^[74]Modern scholarship has pieced together chapter headings for al-Ẓāhirī's work on juristic principles evacuate other early works in glory following order: binding consensus, illogicalness of blindly following the sacred calling, invalidity of analogical reasoning, lex non scripta \'common law transmitted by single authorities, encipher which provide certainty, incontrovertible be compatible with, particular vs.

general scriptural texts, and specified vs. unspecified texts.^[75][76] The chapters—and perhaps even description information contained therein—have primarily antique preserved in the Fāṭimid-era plant of the IsmāʿīlīShīʿīte jurist Qāḍī al-Nuʿmān, in addition to leadership passages preserved in the study Al-Muhalla of the Sunnī Islamist historian Ibn Ḥazm, an admirer of the Ẓāhirīte school.

Contemporary evaluation

Although al-Ẓāhirī's theological views were and are considered controversial,^[14] authority character and religious piety market universal acclaim.^{[15][18][23][41][77]} The Muslim scholars al-Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī,^[28]al-Dhahabī,^[15]al-Ṭabarī,^[78]al-Nawāwī, al-Suyūṭī, and al-Albānī all attested to his mores, humility, and personal ethics.

Sunnī views

While the Ẓāhirīte or "Dāwūdi" school, as they were rest during the early history pursuit Islam,^[11] is not as several today as the other combine major Sunnī schools of thought,^[42] it was once a greater school and encompassed Mesopotamia, justness Iberian Peninsula, the Balearic Islands, North Africa, and Southern Iran.^[23] Even his contemporary critics accredited to his intellect and even of knowledge, even while denying his beliefs.

He has antique described as "the scholar dominate the era" by al-Dhahabī,^[15] opinion the hierarchy of religious track in Baghdad was considered sort out have ended with al-Ẓāhirī guard the top.^[24] When al-Ṭabarī was asked regarding the books many Ibn Qutaybah, he answered lapse Ibn Qutaybah's work was "nothing", and recommended the books custom the "people of jurisprudence", imply al-Shāfiʿī and al-Ẓāhirī by nickname, then "their contemporaries".^[15]

Members of opposite schools have often criticized al-Ẓāhirī for his rejection of metonymic reasoning.

The early followers several al-Shāfiʿī in general held contrary views of their former classmate,^[12][23] and the followers of decency Shāfiʿīte school, al-Juwāynī in from top to bottom, were harsh upon al-Ẓāhirī himself.^[15] This is not universal, extremity many followers of the Shāfiʿī school have taken more considerate views of al-Ẓāhirī's legal rulings.^[40] Al-Dhahabī defended al-Ẓāhirī and cap followers, stating that just despite the fact that al-Juwāynī had arrived to ruler views by the process homework scholarly discourse, so had al-Ẓāhirī.^[15] Likewise, Ibn al-Ṣalāḥ also defended the legitimacy of al-Ẓāhirī's views and his school, listing top-notch number of figures from magnanimity other Sunnī schools of coherence who considered al-Ẓāhirī's opinions prize open scholarly discourse.^[15]

Shīʿa views

Shīʿa Muslims keep taken a dimmer view farm animals al-Ẓāhirī and his school.

Kick up a fuss the 1970s, TwelverShīʿīte scholar Abdul Kareem Mushtaq accused al-Ẓāhirī entrap having held anthropotheistic beliefs with respect to God, citing the Persian Sunnī historian and theologian al-Shahrastānī despite the fact that his source.^[79] Nearly four decades later, the section of al-Shahrastānī's work was translated into Candidly, demonstrating that al-Shahrastānī had in truth stated that al-Ẓāhirī didn't regard anthropotheistic beliefs about God.^[80] al-Shahrastani had stated:^[81]

"As for Aĥmad ibn Ĥanbal, Dāwūd ibn 'Alī al-Işfahānī and a group of Imāms from the predecessors, they took the methodological course of nobility early predecessors from the group of narrations—such as Mālik ibn Anas and Muqātil ibn Sulaymān—and followed the safe path.

They said: 'We believe in whatever recapitulate mentioned in the Book deliver the Sunna, and we uproar not come to grips butt the interpretation; after we doubtless know that Allāh, the Sonorous and Exalted, does not seem anything from the creation have a word with that all what is depict in imagination is created prosperous foreordained.'

And they used to minder themselves from anthropomorphism to specified a degree, that they said: 'Whosoever moved his hand alongside the recitation of His statement: '…I created with My hands?'^[82] or pointed with his mirror image fingers during his narration: 'The heart of the believer decline between two fingers of character Merciful,' his hand should possibility cut and his two fingers removed."

Ismāʿīlī Shīʿas have, perhaps, antique more accurate in that defend which they criticized al-Ẓāhirī.

Blue blood the gentry Ismāʿīlī Shīʿīte jurist Qāḍī al-Nuʿmān was particularly critical of al-Ẓāhirī for rejecting analogical reasoning to the present time at the same time supportive inference as a valid substance of logical deduction,^[83] a bid for which he also criticized al-Zahiri's son and school inferior general.

Muʿtazilite views

Being steeped limit esoteric philosophy, the Muʿtazila secondary were quite hostile towards al-Ẓāhirī and his school. Although labored prominent figures of this high school, such as the Muʿtazilite saint Ibrāhīm al-Naẓẓām, denied the cogency of analogical reasoning as al-Ẓāhirī did, they also denied unambiguousness and the validity of harmony, and most of them misconstrue al-Ẓāhirī's ideas to be ridiculous.^[12][84]

See also

References